Was Claudius a Good Emperor?

By Montarde - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=16936276

 

As I showed in my previous post, the Roman Emperor Claudius had several impairments which would be considered disabilities today. However, did they negatively impact on his daily life and his role as emperor? This is what I hope to find out.

Attitude of Family

It is fair to say that Claudius’ family were not his biggest fans. On top of his mother calling him “a monster of a man”, his grandmother Augusta hated him and refused to speak to him directly. Instead, she would send messengers, or short harsh letters. Charming! Furthermore, when his sister Livilla discovered that he would become emperor, ‘she openly and loudly prayed that the Roman people might be spared so cruel and undeserved a fortune’.  Whether his disability was wholly responsible for these reactions is hard to say. It at least had some role to play.

Caesar Augustus was the step-grandfather of Claudius (It’s a very complicated family tree). Augustus did not hate Claudius, but he certainly did not like him. He was concerned with upholding the family image and therefore attempted to keep Claudius’ condition concealed. This is apparent when he reached manhood. Instead of the regular ceremony, ‘he was taken in a litter to the Capitol about midnight without the usual escort’. It was important to keep his disability hidden as the people of Rome were known for mocking disability.  In a letter to his wife, Augustus states

‘we must not furnish the means of ridiculing both him and us to a public which is wont to scoff at and deride such things. Surely we shall always be in a stew, if we deliberate about each separate occasion and do not make up our minds in advance whether we think he can hold public offices or not’.

It could be argued that he pitied Claudius and wanted to protect him as best he could.

Cowering Like a Girl 

Detail from the painting A Roman Emperor 41AD
by Lawrence Alma-Tadema [Public Domain],
via Wikimedia Commons

There are several aspects of Claudius’ time as emperor which were seen as negatives. The first grievance that people had was the way that he came to power. His predecessor Caligula was assassinated by members of the Praetorian Guard on 24 January, 41 C.E. He had not been a particularly good ruler and many people wanted him dead. The Praetorian Guard then headed to the palace to kill Caligula’s family. It was here that they discovered Claudius cowering on a balcony (the way any strong leader should). Gratus, the guardsman who found him, proclaimed him to be ‘the new ‘Caesar’ and the new ‘Augustus’’. The Praetorian Guard most likely chose Claudius because he was weak. He also appeared to be a coward. They probably thought that the military would have greater power with such a feeble emperor. As he was put into power by way of a military coup, many believed that Claudius did not deserve to rule. From the very moment Claudius gained power, he was fighting an uphill battle. To maintain control, he removed political opponents and diluted the power of the Senate, gaining the reputation of being a ruthless killer.

Good Aspects of His Rule

There are a couple of incidents which show Claudius’ reign in a good light. These mostly relate to how he dealt with the peripheries of his empire. The first of these is the annexation of Britain. The Romans first established their presence on the island of Britain in 55 B.C.E. with the invasion of Julius Caesar. However, almost a century had passed by the time Claudius conquered the area in 43 C.E. It is impressive that Claudius was able to achieve this feat, especially considering Augustus, who felt that he would amount to nothing, did not. A second good aspect of his rule is a letter from Claudius addressing tensions in Egypt. There had been an ‘outbreak of violence between the Jewish and Greek populations’ of Alexandria. In his response Claudius criticises both the Jews and the Gentiles. This would suggest that he was a strong ruler.

While it is blatantly obvious that Claudius was disliked and openly mocked, this may not have been due to his disability. Even if it was, he managed to stay in power and rule effectively. Overall, his impairment did not negatively impact him. 

Next week I will continue my disabled historical figures series by examining Richard III’s alleged deformities.

 

                                                                                                              The Wheelchair Historian

   

Further Reading

Idris Bell, Harold, 1924. Jews and Christians in Egypt: the Jewish troubles in Alexandria and the Athanasian controversy (British Museum).

Levick, Barbara, 2015. Claudius, 2nd edition (1st edition 1990) (London: Taylor and Francis). Accessed through ProQuest Ebook Central, https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/trinitycollege/detail.action?docID=2046490

Momigliano, Arnaldo, (1934). Claudius, the emperor, and his achievement, Translated by W.D. Hogarth (Oxford).

Osgood, Josiah, 2011. Claudius Caesar: Image and Power in the Early Roman Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).

Scullard, Howard Hayes, 2013. From the Gracchi to Nero: A History of Rome 133 BC to AD 68, reprinted fifth edition (1982; first published 1959) (London and New York: Routledge).

Suetonius, Lives of the Caesars, Claudius, Translated by J.C. Rolfe (January 1914). http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Claudius*.html Accessed: 14 August 2020. 

The Roman Emperor Claudius

Bust of Claudius Photo By Marie-Lan Nguyen (2011), CC BY 2.5

Welcome to the first entry of my series on disabled historical figures. Over the coming weeks, I hope to explore historical figures who also happened to be disabled. I will start with the Roman Emperor Claudius and move forward chronologically from there. Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus was born on 1^st August, 10 BCE in Lugdunum, Roman Gaul (modern-day Lyon, France). He was the Roman Emperor from 41 CE until his death in 54 CE.

What Disability did Claudius have?

There have been some conflicting ideas concerning the nature of Claudius’ condition. In the period surrounding the Second World War it was widely accepted that Claudius had poliomyelitis (‘infantile paralysis’); however, in more recent times a diagnosis of cerebral palsy seems more likely. The interpretation of the condition has changed depending on what disability is prevalent at the time of the historian. This means that there is still some speculation as to what Claudius’ condition may have been. For instance, Josiah Osgood believes that he suffered from a nervous disorder known as dystonia. The reason that he draws this conclusion is that some of Claudius’ symptoms include ‘irregular motor movements, a stammer and drooling’.

However, dystonia is not the only possibility. For example, Christian Laes states that some people now believe that Claudius could be diagnosed with spastic diplegia, also known as Little’s Disease. This condition could either be caused by brain damage at birth or be congenital. The symptoms of this condition include weak muscles, spastic twitches, slowness of speech and motor problems. Unlike other disabilities, it may not be immediately obvious and only becomes apparent later. The fact that the symptoms do not appear immediately may explain why Claudius survived for as long as he did. Spastic diplegia is a form of cerebral palsy which predominantly impacts the legs, but the arms may also feel its effects. Therefore, those who suspect cerebral palsy as the culprit would still be correct. This gives an idea of just how many possibilities there are when it comes to identifying the disability. Putting a label on what condition afflicted Claudius is not a priority. The important thing to note is that a disability was present.

Derek Jacobi as Claudius in the 1976 BBC series I, Claudius

 

Primary Source Evidence

Evidence that Claudius had a physical disability can be found in several sources. According to Cassius Dio, Claudius ‘was sickly in body, so that his head and hands shook slightly' and as a result he had a faltering voice. However, he notes that his mental abilities were unaffected, and Claudius even wrote on history. Dio also states that Claudius delivered his speeches sitting down, as though speaking while standing required too much effort.

Apocolocyntosis, a work written by Seneca the Younger to mock Claudius, gives several examples of his impairments. When he dies Claudius is brought in front of the gods. They are confused as to who he is as ‘he seemed to be threatening something, for he wagged his head ceaselessly’, and dragged his right foot. When they asked where he was from, he answered with a mumbled voice, in a language they did not understand. If the gods can’t understand you, then you know you’re in trouble!! Jupiter therefore summoned Hercules, who had journeyed across the world, and would know all the countries and languages in existence. However, he too failed in comprehending Claudius. In fact, he mistook Claudius for a monster and felt that ‘his thirteenth labour had come upon him’. This is not the only time in history when disabled people have been compared to monsters. That topic could occupy several blog posts by itself.

Several references are made, not only to Claudius’ impairments, but also his ill health. According to the Roman historian Suetonius (born 69 CE), Claudius’ mother, Antonia referred to him as “a monster of a man, not finished but merely begun by Dame Nature”. I doubt she would win any mother of the year awards! Her comments suggest that he was never a healthy individual. Seneca accentuates this point. At the beginning of Apocolocyntosis, the god Mercury questions the Fates as to why they kept Claudius alive for so long. He states that ‘four and sixty years it is now since he began to pant for breath’. Apparently, Claudius suffered his entire life and nobody felt that his life was worth living.

On that cheery note, I will conclude this post. Seeing as Claudius is a rather large topic, I have decided to divide him in two (not literally though, as I think he already has enough problems). In next week’s post, I will examine what impact Claudius’ disability had on his ability to rule.

                                                                                                             The Wheelchair Historian

 

Further Reading

Dio, Cassius, Roman History, Books 56-60, Translated by Earnest Cary, Herbert B. Foster, (January 1924), http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/60*.html Accessed: 6 August 2020. 

Laes, Christian, 2018. Disabilities and the Disabled in the Roman World: A Social and Cultural History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).

Levick, Barbara, 2015. Claudius, 2nd edition (1st edition 1990) (London: Taylor and Francis). Accessed through ProQuest Ebook Central, https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/trinitycollege/detail.action?docID=2046490

Osgood, Josiah, 2007. ‘The Vox and Verba of an Emperor: Claudius, Seneca and Le Prince Ideal’, The Classical Journal, 102: 329-353 http://www.jstor.org/stable/30037929 Accessed: 6 August 2020.

Seneca the Younger, Apocolocyntosis, Translated by Michael Heseltine, W. H. D. Rouse. Revised by E. H. Warmington (January 1913).

Suetonius, Lives of the Caesars, Claudius, Translated by J.C. Rolfe (January 1914).

The History of Disability Terminology

I feel that while discussing the history of disability, terminology is both important and controversial. After doing some research, I have determined that it is almost impossible to write about this topic whilst still being politically correct. Virtually every historical term used to refer to the disabled is now deemed offensive in one way or another. I would like to take this opportunity to explore the origins of certain terms for disabled people, as well as what the various approaches to disability terminology are. I will only include terms related to physical impairments as this is what I can relate to.

Medical vs Social Model

This bit may get technical, so I will try and keep it brief. Basically, when it comes to defining disability there are two schools of thought. The first of these is the medical model of disability. This is the belief that the problem lies in the body of the person and this causes the disability. For example, if someone is paralysed and uses a wheelchair as a result, the paralysis is what disables them. This line of thinking has led to doctors attempting to treat patients with disabilities in order to cure them. This model has been heavily criticised by disability activists for confining disabled people to medical institutions and depicting them as charity cases who deserve pity.

To counteract this, the social model of disability emerged. With this narrative, a disability was no longer caused by a fault in someone’s body. Instead, it was the way society reacted to that fault. In this narrative, the problem, i.e. paralysis is deemed an impairment and the lack of wheelchair access is the disability. This model has surpassed the medical model in prominence as it gives more power to people with disabilities and has assisted the efforts of disability rights activists. However, certain authors, such as Tom Shakespeare feel that the social model has gone too far and may even be counterproductive. I would be inclined to agree with him. For instance, some ardent supporters of the social model ignore the fact that some impairments are themselves disabling. I can say from personal experience, that various aches and pains can indeed be debilitating. Therefore, I think that recognising the medical and social aspects of disability are important.

Disability vs Handicap

Alright, now that I have all the boring technical stuff out of the way, it’s time for the fun stuff; the offensive terms!!

The most obvious word to begin with is disability. According to www.etymonline.com disability comes from the 1570s and means  "want of power, strength, or ability,". It was not until the 1640s that it came to mean incapacity in the eyes of the law. So, at that point it did not specifically reference impairment. Some people find the ‘dis’ part of disability to be offensive as it indicates something is lacking. However, for me, it is just a word I use to describe myself.

Horse Racing

The term handicapped; I find a little less appealing. Hopefully, its origins will help to explain why. The betting game hand in cap was played in the mid-1600s. Two bettors would put their hand, with forfeit money, in a cap (hence the name). The umpire announced the bet and the players would withdraw their hands with the money to accept the bet, or without the money to forfeit it. Therefore, the term hand in cap, later shortened to handicap, was used as an equaliser in sport. From the mid-1700s, weights were added to superior horses, for betting purposes to ‘handicap’ them. So, understandably, I don’t like being compared to a horse!!

Other Derogatory Terms

Crippled Beggar

There are several other words for disabilities used in the past which are now deemed offensive. I will briefly discuss some of them here. One of the most offensive words in relation to physical impairment is cripple. It appears constantly in historical records. So much so, that it no longer seems offensive to me. Most definitions indicate that someone who is crippled is deprived of at least one limb. Therefore, they creep, or limp, or appear crooked or bent. Interestingly, the definition for crip on www.etymonline.com indicates that cripple was shortened to crip in the U.S. in 1918. This is the same period wounded veterans were returning from WW1. Crippled can also mean badly damaged, as in, the economy was crippled.

Lame is another term which pops up regularly in historical records. It originates from the 1300s and meant “imperfect”. Many of its root words in Old English, Dutch and German, translate as “weak”, “maimed”, or “broken”. In recent times, lame has come to mean uncool. As a result, it may have lost some of its connection to disability.

I hope this helps explain where some of the derogatory terms for disability originated and why they are deemed offensive. I personally don’t find the words themselves offensive. Instead I judge them by their intent and context.

Next week I will start my series looking at disabled historical figures, beginning with the Roman Emperor Claudius.

 

                                                                                                    The Wheelchair Historian

 

Further Reading

Hahn, Harlan, “Towards a Politics of Disability: Definitions, Disciplines and Policies.” Social Science Journal 22.4 (1985): 87-105. https://www.independentliving.org/docs4/hahn2.html Accessed: 15 July 2020.

Kuppers, Petra. (2010). Introduction. Profession, 107-111. www.jstor.org/stable/41419867 Accessed: 15 July 2020.

National Disability Authority http://nda.ie/Publications/Attitudes/Appropriate-Terms-to-Use-about-Disability/ Accessed: 17 July 2020.

Online Etymology Dictionary www.etymonline.com Accessed: 17 July 2020.

Shakespeare, Tom, and N. Watson. “The Social Model of Disability: An Outdated Ideology?” Exploring Theories and Expanding Methodologies: Where Are We and Where Do We Need to Go? Research in Social Science and Disability. Ed. S. Barnartt and B. Altman. Vol.2. Amsterdam: JAI, 2001. 9-28. https://www.um.es/discatif/PROYECTO_DISCATIF/Textos_discapacidad/00_Shakespeare2.pdf Accessed: 15 July 2020.

Snopes https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/handicaprice/ Accessed: 17 July 2020. 

Today I found out http://www.todayifoundout.com/index.php/2013/12/origin-word-handicap/ Accessed: 17 July 2020.

U.K. Government https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/inclusive-communication/inclusive-language-words-to-use-and-avoid-when-writing-about-disability Accessed: 17 July 2020.

Zola, Irving. “Self, Identity, and the Naming Question: Reflections on the Language of Disability.” Social Science and Medicine 36.2 (1993): 167-73.